Thursday, June 24, 2010

The Mandinka, Mandingo or Malinke tribe is perhaps the most renowned tribe in West Africa. It is reported that it is also one of the largest ethnic groups in West Africa, and it is a known fact that it is the largest ethnic group in The Gambia.

The Mandinkas are perhaps the most revered tribe in The Gambia. Even rap musicians like Nas sing about the Mandinka tribe. This may be because 'Roots,' a best seller written by Alex Hailey, An African-American who traced his roots back to a slave captured in the Gambia- Kunta Kinteh opened the eyes of black Americans to the Mandinka tribe, or maybe because the Mandinkas are one of the largest ethnic groups in West Africa, with an estimated population of about 13 million.

Mandinkas have contributed greatly to the development of The Gambia. The first president of the Republic of The Gambia was a Mandinka, and so were some of the many other intellectuals who helped the country gain independence: the late Sir Farimang Mamadi Singhateh, Sheriff Ceesay and Sheriff Dibba, and a lot others.

Origin and Migration
The Mandinka who settled in the Senegambia region were originally from Kangaba of Manding, a state in the ancient empire of Mali. This is believed to be the original home of the Mandinka and was a vassal of the emperor of ancient Ghana, the first empire of Western Sudan. Sundiata Keita was believed to be the founder of The Mali Empire.

However, it is strongly believed that Mandinka expansion and migration into the Senegambia region had begun even before the existence of the Mali Empire. Migrants had moved in small groups from the area of ancient Mali in search of better farmland, then settled and intermarried with the indigenous inhabitants of the lower regions of Senegambia and Guinea-Bissau. Both the major and minor migrations which took place between the Mali and the Senegambia region were influenced by a search for better farmland, as the area was very fertile.

Migrants became successful, and as they had no competitors in the region because of their great fighting skills, many young princes and generals who could not become rulers in the province of Mali came down to mark their own territories in the name of Mali.

The big migration however (from Mali region to the Senegambia region) occurred during the reign of Sundiata Keita, led by one of his generals known as Tiramang or Tiramangan Traore. He was to conquer a large part of the area which later became Guinea-Bissau and the Kassa region (now the Casamance region in Senegal) in the lower Senegambia region.

However before going on the main mission for Mali, Tiramang was sent on a punitive expedition against the kingdom of Jolof, in the northeast of present day
Senegal. The Jolof ruler had not only refused to sell Sundiata horses, which he needed for the expedition, but killed his messengers as well.

Tiramang left Mali by the mid-thirteen century with over 75,000 settlers, including princes, generals, freemen, different artisan groups and slaves. He proceeded to Jolof, defeated and killed the ruler, then went on to conquer the Kassa region. In his efforts to conquer the region he was helped by Mandinka families who had settled much earlier in the area.

The most prominent of these was the Sanneh family. This conquest forced the migration of some of the local inhabitants, such as the Jola and Bianounka, towards the Gambia and the Atlantic coast. He proceeded to build the Kaabu empire which became the home of thousands of Mandinka. The empire lasted until the 1860s when it was destroyed by the Fula of Futa Jalon.

Until the fall of the Mali Empire, Kaabu remained the most important vassal state. Some of the rulers of the states of the Kaabu Empire even got the authority to rule from their ancestral home, Mali. Some of the early states of Kaabu were Jimara, Tumana, Kantora, Sankolla, Sama, Pachana, and Wuropana (or Eropina).

Not all Mandinka kingdoms were under the political domination of Kaabu. Kombo was originally a Jola state which went to the Mandinka by right of conquest. They were helped by an army sent by the emperor of Kaabu. The success over the Jola led to the establishment of a dankuto (a joking relationship) between the people of Kaabu and those of Kombo. This joking relationship meant that the two parties swore to support each other in all times of trouble, mediate on behalf of each other without causing offences, and inter-marry.

The alliance was binding even to unborn generations, and anyone who broke it was subjected to a terrible curse. This type of alliance existed among various Mandinka states. Niumi and Jarra, both of which were states on the banks of the River Gambia, have such an agreement.

Nyancho and Koring states
Nyanchos and Korings were members of the ruling class of the Kaabu Empire and of some of their vassal states. Nyanchos and Korings traced their descent from Tiramang through the paternal line. According to tradition, Nyanchos were children born from the marriage between one of the sons of Tiramang and a mysterious woman called Balaba.

No one knew where she came from, but she lived in a cave for several years before she was discovered by a hunter. She was believed to have supernatural powers, perhaps from the strange circumstances that surrounded her life. She was always in white and
came out only at night. After her discovery, she married one of Tiramang's sons. They had four daughters who were also believed to have supernatural powers.

Three of these children married the Mandinka rulers of Jimara, Sama and Pachana, which were among the states of the Kaabu Empire. The fourth daughter married the ruler of the Serer state of Saloum. All the descendants of these four children of Balaba came to be known as nyanchos.

Emperors for the empire of Kaabu were from that time chosen from the states of Jimara, Sama and Pachana in rotation. Claimants to the thrones of these states and to the emperorship of Kaabu could only rule if they could trace their right through a female nyancho. Thus, the system of inheritance in these states was matrilineal. A state that was ruled by a nyancho was known as a Nyancho state.

Korings also became another group of the ruling class and nobility. All children of male nyanchos were known as korings. Since these young princes could not become rulers of states by tracing their descent through their fathers, they invariably become governors of provinces.

Another group of nobles who were considered korings were members of powerful Mandinka families who allied with the founding ruling lineages of Kaabu. Yet other korings were children the emperors had with women who were not nyanchos. These groups of nobility could never become nyanchos or rule, but their
children could claim the title if their mothers were nyanchos. Some nyanchos too, who had no opportunity of ruling embarked on quests to establish their own kingdoms. Korings who were not content with the mere office of governor moved out and founded their own states that became known as Koring states. This desire by nyanchos and korings to found their own states was largely responsible for the large number of Mandinka in the Senegambia region.

Mandinka Kingdoms
As stated earlier, migrations led to the founding of many states and kingdoms, some of which were located on both north and south banks of the River Gambia. Today some of these ancient places such as Wuli, Baddibu, and Niumi, still bear their original names. The positions of these kingdoms located in The Gambia region were as follows, moving from the east to the west.

The states on the south bank are Kantora, Tumana, Jimara, Wuropana, Nyamina, Jarra, Kiang, Foni, and Kombo. Foni was a Jola state and remained
independent of Kaabu, but was later incorporated with the other Gambian kingdoms to form the colony of The Gambia under British rule. The states on the north bank are Wuli, Sandu, Saloum, Baddibu, Jokadu, and Niumi. Although Sine and Saloum were Serer states, they had some loose relationship with Kaabu.

The Gambian kingdoms were sometime ruled by a single lineage or kabilo, as it was known among the Mandinka. Thus, Wuli was ruled by the Wali Kabilo, Sankolla by the Sonko kabilo, and Kantora by the Sanyang kabilo. On the other hand, some states were ruled by three or four lineages who rotated the kingship among them. Niumi, located at the mouth of the River Gambia, was engaged in this kind of rulership. It was governed in turn by the Jammeh, Manneh and Sonko. Originally, this state was ruled by the Jammeh who later invited the Manneh of Kaabu to share kingship with them. The Sonko only had
a share in running this state because they helped the ruler gain his independence from Saloum. But when the British took over Niumi in the late 1880s, the Sonko became the permanent rulers of this state.

The Gambian kingdoms eventually lost their independence to the British, and they remained as subjects until The Gambia was granted independence in 1965.

Lifestyle

Traditionally engaged in farming and fishing, most Mandinka people are staunch Muslims and they also have a strong musical tradition. Islamic feast days, such as the end of Ramadan, and family celebrations, such as a wedding or circumcision, or even the arrival of a special guest, are often seen as very good reasons for some music and dancing. The Mandinka have a rich oral history that is passed down through griots.

This passing down of oral history through music has made music one of the most distinctive traits of the Mandinka. They have long been known for their drumming and also for their unique musical instrument, the kora. Jaliba Kuyateh is the most renowned griot of this generation in The Gambia.

Although it was akin to all the other ethnic groups in The Gambia, marriages used to be arranged for most Mandinkas. The tradition is dying out in the urban setting, but it is still continued in the rural areas. Most Mandinkas were also known to be polygamous although the inculcation of Western culture has reduced this drastically.

Their favorite dish is domoda (peanut paste soup). Janjangbureh is believed to have the highest concentration of Mandinkas. Farming is the predominant profession of the Mandinkas while the Kankurang is their traditional masquerade.

Friday, June 18, 2010

Seven World Wonders

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

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This article is about the Seven Ancient Wonders. For other Wonders, see Wonders of the World (disambiguation).

The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (from left to right, top to bottom): Great Pyramid of Giza, Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, Colossus of Rhodes, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria as depicted by 16th-century Dutch artist Marten Heemskerk.

The Great Pyramid of Giza, the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing.

The Seven Wonders of the World (or the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) is a well known list of remarkable constructions of classical antiquity. It was based on guidebooks popular among the ancient Hellenic tourists. The most prominent of these, the versions by Antipater of Sidon and an observer identified as Philon of Byzantium, is composed of seven works located around the Mediterranean rim. In turn, this original list has inspired innumerable versions through the ages, often in keeping with the limited number of seven entries. Of the original Seven Wonders, only one—the Great Pyramid of Giza—has remained relatively intact into the current day.

Background

Alexander the Great's conquest of much of the known world in the 4th century BC gave Hellenistic travelers access to the civilizations of the Egyptians, Persians, and Babylonians. These visitors, smitten by the landmarks and marvels of the various lands, began to list what they saw. As a way of organizing, a compendium of these places made it easier to remember. Indeed, in place of the contemporary usage of the word "wonder," the Greeks actually used the word "theamata," which translates to "things to be seen" or "must-sees." Hence, the list was meant to be the Ancient World's counterpart of a travel guidebook.
Each person had his own version of the list, but the best known and earliest surviving was from a poem by Greek-speaking epigrammist Antipater of Sidon from around 140 BC. He named seven sites on his list, but was primarily in praise of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus:

I have gazed on the walls of impregnable Babylon along which chariots may race, and on the Zeus by the banks of the Alpheus, I have seen the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Helios, the great man made mountains of the lofty pyramids, and the gigantic tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the sacred house of Artemis, that towers to the clouds, the others were placed in the shade, for the sun himself, has never looked upon its equal, outside Olympus'

– Antipater, Greek Anthology IX.58

Another 2nd-century-BC observer, who claimed to be the mathematician Philon of Byzantium, wrote a short account entitled The Seven Sights of the World. However, the incomplete surviving manuscript only covered six of the supposedly seven places, which agreed with Antipater's list.
Earlier and later lists by the historian Herodotus (484 BC–ca. 425 BC) and the architect Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305–240 BC), housed at the Museum of Alexandria, survived only as references.
The Colossus of Rhodes was the last of the seven to be completed, after 280 BC, but the first to be destroyed, by an earthquake in 226/225 BC. Hence, all seven existed at the same time for a period of less than 60 years. Few people could personally witness all the seven wonders.
Antipater had an earlier version which replaced Lighthouse of Alexandria with the Walls of Babylon. Lists which preceded the construction of Colossus of Rhodes completed their seven entries with the inclusion of the Ishtar Gate.
In the sixth century, a list of seven wonders was compiled by Gregory, Bishop of Tours. The list included the Temple of Solomon, the Pharos of Alexandria and Noah's Ark.

Scope

It is thought that the limitation of the lists to seven entries was attributed to the special magical meaning of the number. Geographically, the list only covered the sculptural and architectural monuments of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions, then thought to encompass the "known" world for the Greeks. Hence, extant sites beyond this realm were not considered as part of contemporary accounts.
The primary accounts, coming from Hellenistic writers, also heavily influenced the places included in the wonders list. Five of the seven entries are a celebration of Greek accomplishments in the arts and architecture (the exceptions being the Pyramids of Giza and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon).

The Seven Ancient Wonders

Wonder	Date of construction	Builder	Notable feature	Date of destruction	Cause of destruction	Modern Location
Great Pyramid of Giza	2584-2561 BC	Egyptians	Built as the tomb of fourth dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu.	Extant	Extant	Giza, Egypt
Hanging Gardens of Babylon	605-562 BC	Babylonians	Diodorus Siculus described multi-levelled gardens reaching 22 meters (75 feet) high, complete with machinery for circulating water. Large trees grew on the roof. Built by Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife Amytis of Media.	After 1st century BC	Earthquake	Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq
Statue of Zeus at Olympia	466-456 BC (Temple) 435 BC (Statue)	Greeks	Occupied the whole width of the aisle of the temple that was built to house it, and was 12 meters (40 feet) tall.	5th-6th centuries AD	Fire	Olympia, Greece
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus	c. 550 BC	Lydians, Persians, Greeks	Dedicated to the Greek goddess Artemis, it took 120 years to build. Herostratus burned it down to achieve lasting fame. Rebuilt by Alexander the Great only to be destroyed again by the Goths. It was rebuilt once again after, only to be closed in 391 and destroyed by a mob led by St John Chrysostom in 401.	356 BC (by Herostratus) AD 262 (by the Goths) AD 391 (by mob led by St John Chrysostom)	Arson by Herostratus, Plundering	near Selçuk, Izmir Province, Turkey
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus	351 BC	Carians, Persians, Greeks	Stood approximately 45 meters (135 feet) tall with each of the four sides adorned with sculptural reliefs. Origin of the word mausoleum, a tomb built for Mausolus, a satrap in the Persian Empire	by AD 1494	Damaged by an earthquake and eventually disassembled by European Crusaders.	Bodrum, Turkey
Colossus of Rhodes	292-280 BC	Greeks	A giant statue of the Greek god Helios, god of the sun, c. 35 m (110 ft) tall.	226 BC	Earthquake	Rhodes, Greece
Lighthouse of Alexandria	c. 280 BC	Hellenistic Egypt	Between 115 and 135 meters (383 – 440 ft) it was among the tallest structures on Earth for many centuries. The island that it was built on, Pharos, eventually spawned the Latin word for lighthouse, again Pharos.	AD 1303-1480	Earthquake	Alexandria, Egypt

Influence

Arts and architecture

The seven wonders on Antipater's list won praises for their notable features, ranging from superlatives of the highest or largest of their types, to the artistry with which they were executed. Their architectural and artistic features were imitated throughout the Hellenistic world and beyond.
The Greek influence in Roman culture, and the revival of Greco-Roman artistic styles during the Renaissance caught the imagination of European artists and travellers. Paintings and sculptures alluding to Antipater's list were made, while adventurers flocked to the actual sites to personally witness the wonders. Legends circulated to further complement the superlatives of the wonders.

Modern lists

Of Antipater's wonders, the only one that has survived to the present day is the Great Pyramid of Giza. The existence of the Hanging Gardens has not been proven, although theories abound. Records and archaeology confirm the existence of the other five wonders. The Temple of Artemis and the Statue of Zeus were destroyed by fire, while the Lighthouse of Alexandria, Colossus, and tomb of Mausolus were destroyed by earthquakes. Among the artifacts to have survived are sculptures from the tomb of Mausolus and the Temple of Artemis in the British Museum in London.
Still, the listing of seven of the most marvellous architectural and artistic human achievements continued beyond the Ancient Greek times to the Roman Empire, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and to the modern age. The Roman poet Martial and the Christian bishop Gregory of Tours had their versions. Reflecting the rise of Christianity and the factor of time, nature and the hand of man overcoming Antipater's seven wonders, Roman and Christian sites began to figure on the list, including the Colosseum, Noah's Ark and Solomon's Temple. Modern historians, working on the premise that the original Seven Ancient Wonders List was limited in its geographic scope, also had their versions to encompass sites beyond the Hellenistic realm—from the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World to the Seven Wonders of the World. Indeed, the "seven wonders" label has spawned innumerable versions among international organizations, publications and individuals based on different themes—works of nature, engineering masterpieces, constructions of the Middle Ages, etc. Its purpose has also changed from just a simple travel guidebook or a compendium of curious places to list of sites that entail preservation and protection.

Tuesday, June 8, 2010

Tourism in Nigeria

To welcome you to this blog, I bring you the wonders of the yoruba tribe in Nigeria. One of the places in Nigeria that you wont want to miss when you visit Nigeria, is Osun state, here there are lots of side attractions and the heritage of the people is wort craving for. it is the believe of the people that tourism is hospitality and you have not seen a better place to visit than Osun Osogbo in the southern part of Nigeria. the Yoruba culture and tourism.
Ọṣun (or Oshun, Ochun) (pronounced [ɔʃún]) in Yoruba mythology, is a spirit-goddess (Orisha) who reigns over love, intimacy, beauty, wealth and diplomacy.^[1] She is worshipped also in Brazilian Candomblé Ketu, with the name spelled Oxum. She should not be confused, however, with a different Orisha of a similar name spelled "Osun," who is the protector of the Ori, or our heads and inner Orisha.
Ọṣun is beneficent and generous, and very kind. She does, however, have a horrific temper, though it is difficult to anger her. She is married to Orula but only because of a contest put up by her mother Yemaya. The man to discover her daughter's true name would take her hand in marriage, Orula with Eleguas trickery learned the name and Orula paid off Elegua and married Oshun. Oshun went to a drum one day and fell in love with the king dancer Shango, the god of thunder. Shango is married to Oba, Oya, and Oshun, though Oshun is considered His legitimate wife and the mother of his Ibeji twins.

In Cuban Santería, Oshun (sometimes spelled Ochún or Ochun) is an Orisha of love, maternity and marriage. She has been syncretized with Our Lady of Charity (La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre), Cuba's patroness. She is associated with the color yellow, metal brass ^[2], peacock feathers, mirrors, honey and anything of beauty, her favorable day of the week is Saturday and the number she is associated with is 5.
In one story, she had to become a prostitute to feed her children and the other Orishas removed her children from her home. Oshun went insane from grief and wore the same white dress every day; it eventually turned yellow. Aje'-Shaluga, another Orisha, fell in love with her while she was washing her dress. He gave her money and gems which he collected from the bottom of the river he lived in. They were married and she was reunited with her children.
Oshun has had many husbands. Different myths attribute husbands to her, including Erinle, Oshosi, Orisha Oko, and Aje'-Shaluga. She is also the sexual partner of Shango, and Ogun.
Her children include the Ibeji twins, Idowu, and Logun Ede.

The Importance of Oshun in Yoruba Culture

According to the Yoruba elders^{[citation needed]}, Oshun is the "unseen mother present at every gathering"^{[citation needed]}, because Oshun is the Yoruba understanding of the cosmological forces of water, moisture, and attraction. Therefore she is omnipresent and omnipotent^{[citation needed]}. Her power is represented in another Yoruba scripture which reminds us that "no one is an enemy to water" and therefore everyone has need of and should respect and revere Osun, as well as her followers.
Oshun is the force of harmony. Harmony we see as beauty, feel as love, and experience as ecstasy. Oshun according to the ancients was the only female Irunmole amongst the original 16 sent from the spirit realm to create the world. As such, she is revered as "Yeye" - the sweet mother of us all. When the male Irunmole attempted to subjegate Oshun due to her femaleness she removed her divine energy, called ase by the Yoruba, from the project of creating the world and all subsequent efforts at creation were in vain. It was not until visiting with the Supreme Being, Olodumare, and begging Osun pardon under the advice of Olodumare that the world could continue to be created. BUT not before Osun had given birth to a son. This son became Elegba, the great conduit of ase in the Universe and also the eternal and infernal trickster.
Oshun is known as Iyalode, the "(explicitly female) chief of the market." ^[3] She is also known as Laketi, she who has ears, because of how quickly and effectively she answers prayers. When she possesses her followers she dances, flirts and then weeps- because no one can love her enough and the world is not as beautiful as she knows it could be^{[citation needed]}.

Roads of Oshun in Lukumi

In Cuban Lukumi tradition, Oshun has many roads, or manifestations. Some of these include:

Oshun Ibu Ikole -- Oshun the Vulture. This Oshun is associated with Witches (Aje), and her symbols are the vulture, and the mortar and pestle (both of which are symbols of witchcraft). In Cuba, her myths say that this Oshun saved the world by flying the prayers of the dying world up to the Sun (Orun), where Olodumare lives, however in West Africa this myth is attributed to Yemoja.

Oshun Ibu Anya -- Oshun of the Drums. This Oshun is the patron of dancing and the Anya drums. She is said to dance ceaselessly to forget her troubles.

Oshun Ibu Yumu -- This Oshun is the eldest Oshun. She sits at the bottom of the river, knitting.

Oshun Ibu D'Oko -- Oshun, the wife of Orisha Oko. This Oshun is pictured as a furrow to be plowed and a giant vulva, while her husband Orisha Oko is a farmer and pictured as a giant phallus. This is one of Oshun's most obviously procreative manifestations.

Oshun Ololodi -- Oshun, the diviner. This Oshun is the wife of Orunmila, the Orisha of Ifa divination.

Oshun Ibu Akuaro -- Oshun, the Quail. The children of this manifestation of Oshun are said to be very nervous people.

Tourism World